Two-Dimensional Machiavellianism: Conceptualization, Theory, and Measurement of the Views and Tactics Dimensions

Summary

This paper set out the conceptualization, theory, and measurement of Machiavellianism as a two-dimensional construct, addressing the field's long reliance on unidimensional scales. The authors distinguished a cynical and untrusting views dimension from an immoral interpersonal tactics dimension and developed the 12-item Two-Dimensional Machiavellianism Scale (TDMS) to assess both. The scale was constructed and validated across six samples totalling 3,886 participants using confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory. Results supported the two-factor structure and demonstrated strong reliability and construct validity for each dimension. The work provides a theoretically grounded, psychometrically robust instrument that separates what Machiavellian individuals believe from how they behave. It has become a widely used tool for measuring Machiavellianism in personality research.